Human cargo

Shipping people overseas

The transport of goods by sea on scheduled services has been a necessary maritime activity for centuries but also the carriage of people by sea has been a much smaller but nevertheless important part of maritime trade.

The Vikings did it in the first century and before that the Romans, the Greeks also travelled around their new lands they conquered. However, there is no sign that the ships they used were specially built for passengers. Warships and cargo boats were common, but ships and boats primarily built for passengers are difficult to find.

However, the word passenger is often interpreted as travelling freely and perhaps in some state of luxury. This was not always the case and therefore the term “Human cargo” seems a more appropriate title for many of the early maritime ventures.

 

Therefore we differentiate between those that travel of their own free will and those that are part of “forced travel” such as troops, convicts under “transportation” and slaves.

The types of “passenger trade” and the ships that carried people are quite different. We will focus on the era of the sailing ship in this article.

Emigration

[1]Perhaps the voyage of the Mayflower in 1620 classifies for passenger transport as this 180-ton ship

Figure 1 - Copy of the Mayflower

of around 26m in length sailed across the Atlantic with 102 passengers intent on settling in this new colony that became the USA. In a voyage of around 10 weeks with 30 crew members they landed at Cape Cod as the "Pilgrims" to establish a colony with freedom to express their religion.

The slave trades

Figure 2 - Slave carrack

Of all the shipment of people by ship, the slave trade was the most repugnant. It has a long history linked to the colonies established overseas by European maritime nations. The Portuguese took slaves from West Africa to Brazil in the 16^th. century.[2] In small ships called “carracks of 36m loa. and around 400 tons. They were able to moor in the creeks of West Africa and slaves were [3]brought from the interior to be loaded as “cargo” in these small vessels. The ships were not adapted for the carriage of people and each slave was crammed into the holds of the ship. Many died on the voyage to Brazil.

As the colonies grew ships became bigger as they crammed more slaves into the ships to maximise profit, so the conditions deteriorated. In this classic diagram of a slave ship, it is possible to see the inhumane conditions.[4]

 

Figure 3 - layout of a slave ship

The room allowed for each slave was:

Men: 6 ft (182.9cm) by 1ft 4 inches (40.6cm)

Women: 5ft 10 inches (177.8cm) by 1ft 4 inches (40.6cm)

Boys: 5ft (152.4cm) by 1ft 2 inches (35.6cm)

Girls: 4 ft 6 inches (137.2cm) by 1 ft (30.5cm)

Thus, a ship of nominal tonnage 297 tons with a crew of 45 could carry 609 slaves.[5]

It is said that a chained slave took less room than a dead man in his coffin.[6]

Transportation

Banishment of undesirable persons to a foreign land was also a major shipping trade and as early as 1717 the UK sent around forty thousand men and women to the USA over the next 60 years to work on the plantations. However, as the slave trade started from Africa the transport of convicts from the UK to America ceased and the UK needed a new place to continue their transportation.

Emigration to Australia

Following the “discovery” of Australia by Captain Cook in the early 1770’s, emigration to Australia started with the transport of convicts from overcrowded prisons in the UK in 1788 when the first penal settlement was created.

Eleven ships carried over 1400 men and women, along with the supplies they needed to set up a colony in Botany Bay over a voyage of 15000 miles. The majority of those who travelled to Australia on the First Fleet were convicts. The voyage took eight months with the loss of 48 persons and without any loss of ships. A remarkable voyage.[7]

Figure 4 - Convict ship Alexander

One ship, the Alexander[8], a three masted barque was built in Hull in 1783, so she was a relatively new ship for her first voyage to Australia in the first fleet of ships to arrive in January 1788. She was 35 m in length, a beam of 9,5m weighing 460 tonnes. With a crew of around 30 and 37 marines she transported 213 male convicts.

However, as in the case of the Mayflower with emigrants fleeing to America, so famine and stories of a better life overseas started a new trade, that of persons freely wishing to emigrate. Michael Stammers in his book “Emigrant Clippers to Australia” [9] provides an insight into this service in the 19^th century.

For the convict voyages the ships were chartered by UK government commissions and in the case of emigration generally, the vessels were also chartered by Government Commissions that enabled the shipowner to offer subsidised fares to passengers.

There were generally three classes of service, first class, second class and steerage, each quite distinct.

On a Black Ball Line ship from Liverpool first class passengers paid between £45 and £75, second class £25 to £35 and steerage £14 to £18 in the middle of the 1800’s.

The ships offered a type of liner service but as sailing ships the schedule needed to be flexible. So, the ships sought return cargoes that often required them to sail to China or India to pick up homeward bound cargoes thus increasing the round voyage time considerably to around 8 months.

Figure 5 - Black Ball Line "Champion"

One of their largest clippers was “Champion of the Seas”[10] built in 1854 she was the second largest ship in the Black Ball fleet. In this period of wooden ships the Americans were the dominant builders of fast commercial ships, and “Champion of the Seas” was built and registered in Boston but operated mainly between Liverpool and Australia. With a gross registered tonnage of 2447, 77m in length and a nearly 14m beam she was impressive. A full rigged ship with over 5200 m ² she covered 465 nautical miles in one day on her maiden voyage.

She also was a troop carrier for a while taking 1000 troops to Calcutta during the Indian Mutiny of 1857.

However, it was as a passenger ship she plied her trade.

Conditions on the three-month voyage to Australia varied and passengers were segregated by class of travel.

[11]

Figure 6 - Cross section of an emigrant ship

First class passengers could expect permanent individual cabins aft amongst the officer accommodation, a dining saloon and free access on deck. Second class passengers had small temporary cabins at the after end of the tween decks below or in a deckhouse on the main deck. They had a separate dining saloon.

Steerage passengers had a very different experience as Stammers explains. They were accommodated below deck either in the tween decks or the upper part of the cargo hold. The need to segregate single men and women meant that dormitories were established with married families been quartered between these two groups. Bunks and straw mattresses were provided for sleeping and for eating the passengers were divided into messes of eight persons who received meals from the ships cook, did some cooking themselves and then distributed the food.[12]

 

Figure 7 - Passenger layout in an emigrant ship

All the steerage passenger accommodation was temporary and had to be dismantled for cargo space on the return leg of the voyage to Liverpool.

However all this was to change as Stopford[13] explains.

“Between 1833 and 1914 every aspect of ship design changed.  137 tons to 45,647 tons. switched from wood to iron in the 1850s, from iron to steel in the 1880s, Triple expansion steam engines arrived in the 1880s and turbines from 1900.Speed increased from 7 knots per hour in 1833 to 25 knots per hour in 1907, and fuel consumption from around 20 tons a day to 1,000 tons a day.”

This would have a profound effect on the passenger and liner trades.

---

[1] Keleher, Mayflower II.

[2] MSW, ‘Slave Carrack’.

[3] MSW, fig. Replica of the carrack ‘Santa Maria’.

[4] ‘Diagram of a Slave Ship’.

[5] Atlantic Slave Trade.

[6] Lubbock, Coolie Ships and Oil Sailors, page 11.

[7] ‘Convict Journey’.

[8] North, Convict Ship Alexander.

[9] Stammers, Emigrant Clippers to Australia.

[10] Southworth, Champion of the Seas.

[11] Stammers, Michael, ‘Emigrant Clippers to Australia’.

[12] Stammers, Emigrant Clippers to Australia.

[13] Stopford, Martin, Maritime Economics.

References

Atlantic Slave Trade. 22 August 2022. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atlantic_slave_trade&oldid=1106036570.

Brookes. ‘Diagram of a Slave Ship’. Accessed 14 August 2022. https://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/large106661.html.

‘Convict Journey’. Accessed 10 August 2022. https://www.eastridingmuseums.co.uk/museums-online/convict-connections/convict-journey/.

Keleher, Paul. Mayflower II. 29 May 2022. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mayflower_II&oldid=1090385269.

Lubbock, Basil. Coolie Ships and Oil Sailors. Brown, Sons and Ferguson, 1935.

MSW. ‘Slave Carrack’. Weapons and Warfare (blog), 8 July 2010. https://weaponsandwarfare.com/2010/07/08/slave-carrack/.

North, Jamie. Convict Ship Alexander. Accessed 13 August 2022. https://sydneylivingmuseums.com.au/stories/first-fleet-ships/alexander.

Southworth, Hawes. Champion of the Seas. 26 February 2022. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Champion_of_the_Seas&oldid=1074157804.

Stammers, Michael. ‘Emigrant Clippers to Australia’. Mielpost Research, 1995.

Stammers, Michael. Emigrant Clippers to Australia: The Black Ball Line, Its Operation, People and Ships 1852-187. s.l: Milepost Research, 2013.

Stopford, Martin. Maritime Economics. page 29-30. Accessed 5 May 2022. https://asp.bibliotekservice.no/sjofart/title.aspx?tkey=55207.

 

Surviving entry into a foreign country

 

Surviving entry into a foreign country

The plane came to a stop and the seatbelt signed pinged and switched off. It was if it signalled the start of a race or the commencement of a rugby scrum! People pushed and shoved, climbed over seated persons to reach the aisle, and establish a place in a queue for a cabin door that was not even open! Overhead bin doors flew open and without any regard to people below dragged out their luggage and forced a place in the queue for it. If their baggage was not adjacent to their seat, they pushed past with the determination of a scrum forward without apology or concern for others. What is it in us that brings out this behaviour?

Having checked in baggage I knew there was no need to rush so sat back and enjoyed the debacle of sensible people reduced to a rabble in their urge to leave the plane.

The door opened and the pushing started but also a sense of decency returned as people waited for others to rise and exit their seats. Soon the pace of exit reduced to a trickle, and we rose, collected our bags, checked we had not left anything in the seat pockets and left, thanking the air hostesses for their service.

Outside the aircraft there were a couple of guys just watching us as we went up the ramp. They were in civilian clothes, and it looked as though they were customs or immigration checking us out!

Came to the top of the ramp and then came the information overload. Signs for everything in all directions! Stopped, got bumped by passengers behind me as they raced for the exit but finally deciphered the two most important signs we needed, baggage reclaims and toilets! Then started a long walk with escalators and left and right turns until we came to a large sign that read “You are now entering the UK border control area! More intimidating than welcoming. More signs separating Europeans from non-Europeans, so we chose the queue for Europeans and prepared ourselves for the automatic electronic scan system with my passport. Chose my UK passport and stepped onto the yellow footprints on the floor, removed my cap and inserted my passport into the scanner. No response as I waited and waited. Reread the instructions and began to panic thinking of all the people behind me in the queue getting impatient. Still no response from the machine. In desperation I turned the passport upside down and bingo it worked, and a picture of my face was taken and the gate to the UK opened.

One down 2 to go.

The baggage hall was enormous, and an overhead screen announced that our baggage would arrive on belt two. Dutifully checked the belt signs and walked down the hall. The belt was stationery and the overhead sign said last bag on the belt for passengers from Stockholm. A guy removed all the last remaining bags and there began the scrum to be nearest to the chute ejecting the bags onto the belt. Never mind the yellow safety lines just get close to the belt seemed to be the objective. Having learnt the folly of such a move I went to the other end of the belt were there were less people. Suddenly a light came on over the belt and a bell sounded and everyone became agitated, the bags are coming and so they did. Everything from large well wrapped packages to rucksacks and suitcases that had not survived the baggage handlers and were disgorging their contents on the belt!

Round and round went the bags, saw that red one last time round, where is my small black suitcase with a red address label? There it is, so excused myself and got to the front and extracted the suitcase.

Now for the next hurdle, customs. Choose the green channel passing two nonchalant customs officers leaning against the wall with their eyes everywhere. I wonder what they are looking for. Passed by the inspection area and could not help a peep into it and sure enough there was a family with large suitcases having to unpack them for inspection.

A sliding door opened, and we had entered the UK and it was complete chaos. People lined up against a barrier with name tags or just searching for faces, happy reunions and business people being rushed away to their booked transport.

Again information overload and we scanned for car rentals and followed the signs. More confusion as we must take a lift down to the next level. Remembered where the car rental office was and headed for it only to find it was a building site and we were redirected to the multistorey carpark second level.

There we were met by a friendly attendant who led us to our little Fiat 500 and after checking it for damage we were off or were we. How do we get out of this place!

 

 

 

 

Surviving the flight

 

Surviving the flight

“Go to gate” said the overhead screen as we drank our coffee in the departure lounge. We know what that means so we did not hurry to finish the coffee but slowly wandered to the gate and saw what we expected. A queue had already formed even after the departure attendant had said that boarding would not start for ten minutes.

However, I have learnt to watch this departure official in the past. Just before announcing boarding, they go down to the aircraft to check all is ready. As there were a few seats left from persons choosing to queue we sat down and watched.

Sure enough she returned and announced that they would be boarding families with children first. Did this deter the queue, not at all and the young families had to push their way to the front to board. A sort of rugby scrum approach.

Then she declared they would be boarding the rear seating passengers first and again the queue remained, and everyone pushed and shoved to get through irrespective of seat number. We waited until most persons had boarded knowing that overhead baggage space might now be limited.

Boarding is a stop go experience as persons find their seat extract their belongings and gear for the flight and restow their bag in the overhead bins. No amount of pleas from the flight attendant to sit down asap changes that. Everyone has their own pace. Experience has taught me to extract my book and gear as I walk down the aisle so I can sling my bag in a vacant space in the overhead bin and move straight into my seat without disturbing too many people. However, we had a plan.

From past experience we had learnt that in three rows of seats it could be a problem if one of the passengers was overweight, nee fat and had the middle seat. They took over both arm rests and their wider than normal legs required them to spread their legs encroaching on adjacent passenger leg room. The result for others was an excruciating 3-hour torture scrunched up on your side trying to avoid the sweaty body next to you!

So, rather selfishly we book either adjacent aisle seats, easier for the loo trip or take the window and aisle seat leaving the middle seat vacant. That way we lesson the chance of it being used. However, it is an anxious time as you sit and observe the persons boarding. Oh no, not that tall wide man or I hope that lady with the crying baby does not want 10b. Whew, boarding complete is announced and we can settle down to a comfortable flight.

Then we are introduced to the safety briefing and no one I mean no one pays any attention! I do, where is my nearest exit and is there really a lifejacket under my seat. I have experienced once that was nothing there! Briefing complete, out comes the Kindle and noise cancelling headset and everything is fine.

Follow all the instructions for take-off and I must remind the person in front to open the window blinds and then the flight starts. A bumpy period that hushes most people but as soon as we are airborne and climbing the buzz of chatter increases. Pling, the seat belt signs signify we can release them if we wish, and café service will begin shortly and there is a rush for the toilet!

Another thing I have learnt is that if you have a seat towards the rear, it is a gamble whether there will be any warm baguettes left. Seating nearer the front increases the chance of food choice.

Chose coffee and was pleasantly surprised to find it was free so no body contortion to extract my wallet from my back pocket.

If you have the window seat it might be possible to get glimpses of the earth below depending on the weather and as a past geographer, it is always a pleasure to try and identify the area below. Is that Denmark and was that the east coast of the UK? A real pleasure to ancient mariners.

Three hours pass and the pilot announces we will be landing in 20 minutes, and we should follow the instructions of the flight attendant. So my mental planning starts on how we will survive the hurdle of arrival!

Catching a flight

 

 

Surviving holiday air travel

It is all about luck whether you make it without incident. Take the case of our trip to the UK.

Normally we like to take an early flight out and a late flight back. This is both cheaper and gives you more time on your holiday destination.

Early means a 7.30 or 8am departure! So up at 0430, no breakfast and constantly checking out of the window for the taxi, hope it is on time and it is. Final check on pockets, passport, tickets, wallet, mobile and spectacles. All in order and we take the taxi to the station to catch one of the first airport express trains. At this time of the morning there are few travellers, a smattering of airport workers and flight attendants clutching cups of coffee. We have learnt it is best to try for the front of the train and we are helped by the letters on the station floor. Letter C will get us in the first carriage so long as it is a short train.

On time the train arrives, there is a rush of air, and the doors open, and we manhandle our luggage on board to find there are a lot of travellers and our luggage must stand in the aisle. By the time we have done this there are a few single seats scattered here and there. Kindly ask a lady to move her bag from a vacant seat so I can sit down, and we are off.

Thirty minutes later the train tannoy announces we are arriving at the airport. Immediately people stand up and jostle for position at the same time try to extract their luggage from the racks. Chaos, best to remain seated and wait for them to clear the door. Calmly exit the train with luggage and join the queue to go through the turnstile onto the platform. A lady is having trouble with her mobile app so with a deft and quick manoeuvre we change lanes and get through. One of the conveyer moving stairs is not working so a queue is backed up to the platform. Nothing to do but be patient, we have plenty of time.

The departure hall is absolutely full and complete chaos reigns. Then I remembered, it is the first day after the schools break up for summer and everyone, I mean everyone is out travelling! This going to be a nightmare. However, check in went reasonably smoothly and we got our baggage tags and paper boarding cards for extra security. Where is the back of the queue for baggage drop, I enquired. About 200 metres that way said a smug person at the front of the queue. Well, well I hope we make the flight in time. Forty minutes later we cleared baggage drop and prepared ourselves for the next hurdle, security. Waiting time 15 minutes it said, not too bad, and then a lady redirected us to a new queue which seemed shorter. Great, time to prepare, belt off, all things out of pockets, rucksack in one tray all the other objects in another, Shoes included because I have two artificial knees, I know the procedure if I do not put the shoes through first, they will be passed back for a second run the machine.

Passed through the machine and it beeped and showed red as I pointed at my stainless-steel knees. Knowing the procedure I stood on the yellow footprints, raised my arms over my head and waited for the machine to do its job. The lady gestured for me to exit and turn around as she patted me down first with hands and then with a portable machine. All OK but out of interest I asked to see the picture taken and it did not reveal my knees, only the metal buttons on my shirt. Well, Well.

Searched for my two trays but only one was available. The second one with the rucksack was in the clutches of a man who asked, Is this your bag sir? Yes, I said sure that I had checked everything that might be a problem in my checked in luggage. A check on the screen and he extracted my Kindle from the sack. This should have been placed separately on a tray, I was informed. No point in arguing that a Kindle is not a PC so smiled at him and he let me go.

Clutching my 2 trays whilst at the same time trying to keep my trousers from falling down I tiptoed on my stocking feet to a free table and started the laborious task for getting dressed again! Double check, passport, boarding card, mobile, wallet and spectacles. All in order and ready for the next challenge, finding the gate and getting some breakfast.

Skirted around the duty-free shops and headed for passport control as we were leaving the Schengen region. Two queues, one for Europeans and one for others! With the luxury of dual citizenship, I chose to use my brand-new Norwegian passport and sailed through the system.

Exhausted and needing to sit down we found a café with a couple of seats and ordered coffee and a baguette. Half an hour later the information board stated, “go to gate” and we were off another obstacle race called air travel.

 

 

Navigating the hotel buffet

 

Navigating the hotel buffet breakfast

It starts with timing. When between the opening and closing time should you venture onto the breakfast floor? Should you go early hoping to miss the crowds eager to fill their stomachs or late just before closing to have a relatively free run?

Whenever you go it starts with a queue and the inevitable identity check. Room number now displays your passport photo so there is no doubt who is eligible to enter.

No free choice of table, you are steered to an available area. You are lucky if you get a sea view.

Given a table and a pot of coffee enables you to plan your next move. A reconnaissance is needed to find out where your favourite cereals are plus a navigation plan to avoid queues especially for the English breakfast.

OK, we will start with a rapid expedition to cereals and juice with a detour to avoid the coffee machines and the queue for the toaster.

Safely back at the table and time to relax and enjoy the start of breakfast.

Cereals finished and the plate whipped away immediately after my last mouthful it is time for the big tour!

Quick observation shows that the queue around the toaster is not too long, and they have just refreshed the bacon and sausage area so it will be an English breakfast. Off the starting blocks, picked up a plate and 2 pieces of bread and arrived at the toaster to find a tourist has taken charge of the queue. After reminding us that his toast is first, he said it was OK to place my bread behind his! Toast finished, jogged over to the English breakfast queue, and started to load a fried egg, a sausage and one piece of bacon when a large, no, fat German pushed in and loaded three of everything on his plate and waddled off holding his plate with both hands.

Back at the table and pleasantly satisfied with a second cup of coffee it is time to enjoy the circus they call buffet breakfast.

There is at least a couple of hundred guests in this long room all vying for food. Mostly European with a majority being English and German they come in all shapes and sizes. Young, old, skinny and fat they rush around in a kaleidoscope of bright clothing or sometimes next to no clothes at all! Clearly some have just arrived. A little self-conscious and unsure of their holiday dress code they stand out with their pale skins. In contrast those that have been here a few days are either brown or red depending on their exposure to the sun.

A constant flow of bodies to and fro provides a pageant of colour and culture that is the hallmark of the holiday hotel buffet breakfast.